Your First Step to IT: The 220-1101 Hardware and Networking Guide

The 220-1101 exam, also known as Core 1 of the CompTIA A+ certification, is designed to validate the foundational knowledge and skills necessary for IT professionals working with hardware, networking, mobile devices, and virtualization. This exam serves as a crucial step for anyone pursuing a career in IT support or technical roles that involve hands-on hardware and infrastructure tasks.

The exam covers a broad range of topics, ensuring that candidates possess a well-rounded understanding of computer components, network technologies, and troubleshooting procedures. It is essential to grasp these concepts deeply as they form the backbone of many IT operations in both enterprise and small business environments.

One of the primary objectives of the 220-1101 exam is to ensure candidates understand the core hardware components that make up modern computing devices. This includes knowledge of different types of processors, motherboards, memory modules, storage devices, and power supplies. Understanding these components helps IT professionals to diagnose and resolve hardware failures, upgrade systems effectively, and optimize performance. For example, knowing the differences between SSDs and HDDs or the significance of RAM speeds allows technicians to recommend appropriate upgrades tailored to specific needs.

Networking technologies are another vital area covered in the exam. IT professionals must be familiar with various types of networks, including LANs, WANs, and wireless networks, as well as the hardware that supports these networks, such as routers, switches, and access points. Additionally, understanding IP addressing, subnetting, and common networking protocols is crucial for setting up and maintaining secure and efficient network infrastructures. This knowledge enables candidates to troubleshoot connectivity issues, configure network devices, and ensure seamless communication between different systems.

Mobile devices have become an integral part of both personal and professional environments. The 220-1101 exam tests candidates on their ability to manage and support smartphones, tablets, and laptops, including knowledge about their operating systems, synchronization methods, and security features. With the proliferation of mobile technology, IT professionals must be prepared to address challenges unique to these devices, such as screen repairs, battery replacements, and managing wireless connectivity.

Virtualization and cloud computing concepts are increasingly important in modern IT landscapes. The exam introduces candidates to the basics of virtualization technologies, including virtual machines and hypervisors, as well as cloud service models like Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). Understanding these concepts helps IT professionals support virtual environments, optimize resource usage, and contribute to cloud migration efforts, which are common in today’s organizations.

Troubleshooting is a key skill evaluated in the 220-1101 exam. Candidates are expected to follow systematic approaches to identify, diagnose, and resolve hardware and network problems. This includes interpreting error messages, using diagnostic tools, and applying appropriate fixes. Effective troubleshooting not only restores system functionality but also minimizes downtime and enhances user satisfaction. The exam emphasizes real-world scenarios, preparing candidates to tackle issues such as boot failures, connectivity problems, and peripheral malfunctions.

Security considerations are woven throughout the exam content. Candidates learn about securing devices, networks, and data by implementing best practices such as strong authentication methods, encryption, and malware protection. Awareness of social engineering tactics, phishing attacks, and physical security measures further equips candidates to safeguard organizational assets. This security foundation is vital for all IT roles, as threats continue to evolve and impact all facets of technology use.

The 220-1101 exam also highlights the importance of proper documentation and communication skills. IT professionals must be able to document configurations, procedures, and issues accurately to ensure continuity and effective collaboration within teams. Clear communication with end-users and stakeholders is essential for understanding problems and conveying solutions, making these soft skills a valuable part of the certification.

By covering these diverse yet interconnected topics, the 220-1101 exam prepares candidates for a variety of roles in the IT support domain. Whether working in help desks, technical support centers, or field service, certified professionals gain the confidence and competence to handle the hardware and networking challenges they will encounter. This exam not only validates technical skills but also fosters a problem-solving mindset and adaptability, which are crucial in the fast-changing technology landscape.

The 220-1101 exam provides a comprehensive foundation in hardware, networking, mobile technology, virtualization, and troubleshooting. It is an essential certification for aspiring IT professionals aiming to build a successful career in technical support and infrastructure management. Mastery of the topics covered in this exam ensures candidates are well-prepared to meet the demands of modern IT environments and contribute meaningfully to their organizations’ technology goals.

Exam Domains And Coverage

The 220-1101 exam is divided into five key domains. Each domain addresses different aspects of IT hardware and infrastructure, reflecting real-world scenarios and challenges. Understanding these domains helps candidates focus their study and develop skills that directly apply to their job roles.

Mobile Devices

Mobile devices are increasingly common in today’s workplace, including laptops, tablets, smartphones, and other portable technology. This domain tests your ability to configure, maintain, and troubleshoot these devices.

Topics include:

Installation and configuration of laptops and mobile hardware
Understanding display technologies and connectivity options
Mobile device synchronization and data management
Troubleshooting mobile device issues such as battery life, connectivity, and hardware failures

A deep knowledge of mobile device components and their interaction with other devices is crucial for effective support and problem resolution.

Networking Technologies

Networking is a core element of any IT environment. This domain covers the fundamental concepts and technologies that support network communication and connectivity.

Key areas include:

Types of networks such as LAN, WAN, and PAN
Network hardware like routers, switches, and access points
IP addressing, subnetting, and wireless standards
Network protocols and ports essential for troubleshooting
Configuring and troubleshooting common wired and wireless network issues

Proficiency in networking enables you to ensure smooth communication across devices and resolve connectivity problems quickly.

Hardware

Hardware forms the physical foundation of computing systems. This domain explores components such as motherboards, processors, RAM, storage devices, power supplies, and peripherals.

Important topics are:

Identifying hardware components and their functions
Installing and configuring internal components and peripherals
Understanding power supply types and troubleshooting power issues
Using appropriate tools and safety procedures when working with hardware

Being able to recognize, install, and troubleshoot hardware is fundamental for IT professionals handling system assembly or maintenance.

Virtualization And Cloud Computing

Modern IT environments increasingly leverage virtualization and cloud technologies to improve scalability and resource management. This domain tests your understanding of these concepts and their practical applications.

Core topics include:

Defining virtualization and its benefits
Types of virtualization such as hardware, software, and network virtualization
Cloud computing models including public, private, and hybrid clouds
Common cloud service types such as IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS
Configuring and troubleshooting virtual machines and cloud services

Knowledge in this area prepares you to support IT infrastructure that goes beyond traditional physical hardware.

Hardware And Network Troubleshooting

This domain evaluates your ability to diagnose and resolve common hardware and network problems effectively.

Areas of focus include:

Using troubleshooting methodology to identify root causes
Resolving issues related to motherboards, CPUs, RAM, and storage
Diagnosing network connectivity and configuration problems
Troubleshooting wireless issues and mobile device connectivity
Utilizing diagnostic tools and command-line utilities

Strong troubleshooting skills are essential for minimizing downtime and maintaining IT systems’ reliability.

Exam Format And Question Types

The 220-1101 exam typically contains up to 90 questions to be completed within 90 minutes. The questions are presented in various formats, including multiple-choice questions, drag-and-drop activities, and performance-based questions (PBQs).

Performance-based questions simulate real-world tasks and require candidates to perform troubleshooting or configuration actions in a virtual environment. These questions test practical skills rather than just theoretical knowledge, making hands-on experience a critical component of exam preparation.

Candidates should prepare for a diverse range of question types to ensure they can effectively demonstrate their knowledge during the exam.

Key Concepts To Focus On For Preparation

To succeed in the 220-1101 exam, candidates should focus on several essential concepts and skills:

Understanding the functions and specifications of hardware components and mobile devices
Mastering the fundamentals of networking, including TCP/IP, Wi-Fi standards, and network devices
Gaining familiarity with virtualization and cloud computing principles
Developing a structured troubleshooting approach for hardware and network issues
Practicing the use of diagnostic and configuration tools

A combination of theoretical study and practical application, such as assembling PCs, configuring routers, and setting up virtual machines, can significantly enhance readiness for the exam.

Tips For Effective Exam Preparation

Success on the 220-1101 exam requires a well-planned study strategy. Here are some helpful tips:

Review the official exam objectives carefully to understand the breadth of content
Engage with hands-on labs or simulation environments to practice hardware installation and networking configurations
Use flashcards or study apps to reinforce key terminology and concepts
Join study groups or online forums to discuss topics and share knowledge
Take practice exams to familiarize yourself with the format and timing constraints
Stay current on emerging technologies in mobile devices, networking, and cloud computing

Building a solid foundation through consistent study and practical experience will boost confidence and improve exam performance.

Importance Of Hands-On Experience

While theory is important, hands-on experience is invaluable for mastering the topics covered in the 220-1101 exam. Setting up physical or virtual lab environments helps you understand how components fit and function together.

Tasks such as replacing hardware parts, configuring network devices, and creating virtual machines simulate real workplace challenges and develop problem-solving skills. This practical experience not only aids retention but also prepares you for performance-based exam questions that require applied knowledge.

Overview Of Networking Concepts For The 220-1101 Exam

Networking is a critical domain in the 220-1101 exam and a fundamental skill for any IT professional. This section focuses on understanding network types, devices, protocols, and how to troubleshoot networking issues effectively. Mastery of these topics ensures that candidates can support, configure, and maintain various network environments.

Types Of Networks And Their Characteristics

The exam covers different network types including Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs), Personal Area Networks (PANs), and Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). Understanding their scope, use cases, and limitations is essential.

Local Area Network (LAN): A network that covers a small geographic area such as a home, office, or building. LANs typically use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi to connect devices.
Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that spans large geographic areas, often connecting multiple LANs via routers and public networks like the internet.
Personal Area Network (PAN): Small, short-range networks centered around an individual’s devices, such as Bluetooth connections between a phone and headphones.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that covers a city or campus, larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

Knowing these network types helps in identifying the proper setup and troubleshooting strategies.

Network Hardware Devices

An understanding of the key hardware devices used in networks is a fundamental part of the exam. These devices serve different functions in network architecture.

Routers: Devices that connect different networks, forwarding data packets between them. Routers often include firewall and NAT capabilities.
Switches: Operate within a LAN to connect multiple devices, forwarding data based on MAC addresses to reduce traffic and collisions.
Access Points (APs): Extend wireless network coverage by allowing devices to connect via Wi-Fi.
Modems: Modulate and demodulate signals for communication over telephone or cable lines.
Firewalls: Can be hardware or software solutions that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security rules.

Familiarity with these devices, their purposes, and configurations is vital for effective network management.

IP Addressing And Subnetting

IP addressing is the system used to identify devices on a network. The 220-1101 exam tests knowledge of IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes and subnetting techniques.

IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, expressed in four octets separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses to overcome IPv4 exhaustion, expressed in eight groups of hexadecimal digits.
Subnetting: The process of dividing a network into smaller sub-networks to improve performance and security.

Understanding subnet masks, network IDs, broadcast addresses, and the calculation of host ranges is crucial for network design and troubleshooting.

Network Protocols And Ports

Networking relies on various protocols that govern communication between devices. The exam expects knowledge of these protocols and their associated ports.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): The core suite that governs internet communications.
HTTP and HTTPS: Protocols used for web communication (port 80 and 443 respectively).
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for file transfers (port 21).
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails (port 25).
DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses (port 53).
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns IP addresses dynamically (ports 67 and 68).

Candidates should understand the purpose of these protocols, common ports, and how to troubleshoot related issues.

Wireless Networking Standards And Security

The proliferation of wireless networks demands that candidates understand Wi-Fi standards and security protocols.

Wi-Fi Standards: IEEE 802.11 family including 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax, each with different speeds and frequency bands.
Frequencies: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, with trade-offs between range and speed.
Wireless Security Protocols: WEP, WPA, WPA2, and WPA3. WPA3 is the most secure, but many networks still use WPA2.

Understanding these standards aids in configuring secure wireless networks and troubleshooting connectivity issues.

Network Configuration And Troubleshooting Tools

Troubleshooting networking problems is a practical skill tested in the exam. Familiarity with various tools helps diagnose and resolve issues.

Ping: Tests connectivity between devices by sending ICMP echo requests.
Tracert/Traceroute: Shows the path packets take to reach a destination, helping identify network bottlenecks.
Ipconfig/Ifconfig: Displays and manages IP configuration on Windows and Unix-like systems.
Nslookup: Queries DNS servers to verify domain name resolution.
Netstat: Displays active network connections and listening ports.
Wireshark: Packet analyzer used for detailed traffic inspection (not required for the exam but helpful for understanding).

Candidates should practice using these tools to develop efficient troubleshooting workflows.

Network Address Translation And Port Forwarding

Network Address Translation (NAT) allows multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address, critical for conserving IP addresses.

Static NAT: Maps one private IP to one public IP.
Dynamic NAT: Maps private IPs to a pool of public IPs.
Port Address Translation (PAT): Allows multiple devices to share one public IP using different ports.

Port forwarding is a related concept where inbound traffic on specific ports is directed to devices within a private network.

Understanding these concepts is essential for configuring networks behind firewalls and routers.

Cloud Networking Concepts

Cloud computing changes how networking operates by abstracting physical infrastructure.

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Secure tunnels connecting users or networks over the internet.
Virtual LANs (VLANs): Logical network segmentation to isolate traffic within a LAN.
Software Defined Networking (SDN): Enables centralized network management through software control.
Cloud Service Models: Networking as a service components in IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS platforms.

Familiarity with these allows candidates to support hybrid and cloud environments effectively.

Troubleshooting Network Issues

Applying a structured troubleshooting methodology is vital.

Identify the problem clearly by gathering information.
Establish a theory of probable causes.
Test the theory to determine the cause.
Establish a plan and implement the solution.
Verify full system functionality.
Document findings and actions.

Common issues include IP conflicts, faulty cables, misconfigured routers, wireless interference, and DHCP failures.

Understanding Hardware Components For The 220-1101 Exam

Hardware knowledge is a critical part of the 220-1101 exam, focusing on the physical components that make up computers and related devices. This includes understanding different types of processors, memory, storage, input/output devices, and power supplies. Candidates should be able to identify, install, and troubleshoot these components effectively.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of a computer and executes instructions from programs. Important topics related to the CPU include:

Types of Processors: Understanding differences between Intel and AMD processors, multi-core processors, and clock speeds.
Socket Types: Recognizing various CPU socket types such as LGA, PGA, and BGA is important for compatibility.
CPU Cooling Solutions: Knowing about heat sinks, fans, and liquid cooling to prevent overheating.
CPU Installation: Proper handling and installation procedures to avoid damage.

Understanding how the CPU interacts with other components is key to diagnosing performance issues.

Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory that stores data temporarily for active processes. Candidates must understand:

Types of RAM: Differences between DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, including their speeds and form factors.
Capacity and Speed: How RAM size and frequency affect system performance.
Dual Channel and Multi-channel: The benefits of pairing RAM sticks for improved throughput.
Installing and Troubleshooting RAM: Diagnosing errors related to faulty or incompatible memory modules.

Proper RAM management ensures smooth multitasking and efficient system operation.

Storage Devices

Storage devices retain data permanently or temporarily. Understanding the types, interfaces, and installation methods is essential.

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Traditional spinning disks with larger storage at lower cost.
Solid State Drives (SSDs): Faster storage using flash memory, improving system responsiveness.
Hybrid Drives: Combining HDD capacity with SSD speed.
Storage Interfaces: SATA, NVMe, M.2, and their roles in data transfer rates.
External Storage: USB drives, external hard drives, and network-attached storage (NAS).

Knowledge of storage options helps with upgrades and troubleshooting data access problems.

Motherboards And Expansion Cards

The motherboard connects all hardware components and provides expansion capabilities.

Form Factors: ATX, Micro-ATX, Mini-ITX and their size differences.
Chipsets: Their role in supporting CPU features and peripherals.
BIOS/UEFI: Firmware interfaces for hardware configuration.
Expansion Slots: PCIe, PCI, and how to install graphics cards, sound cards, and other add-ons.
Ports And Connectors: USB, HDMI, Ethernet, audio jacks, and their functions.

Understanding motherboard features is critical for assembling or upgrading PCs.

Power Supplies And Power Management

Power supplies convert AC to DC power for computer components.

Wattage Ratings: Ensuring sufficient power capacity for all hardware.
Connectors: 24-pin motherboard, CPU power, SATA power, PCIe power connectors.
Efficiency Ratings: Certifications like 80 PLUS that indicate power efficiency.
Power Issues: Troubleshooting failure symptoms and surge protection.

Proper power management ensures system stability and longevity.

Input And Output Devices

Peripheral devices allow user interaction and data exchange.

Input Devices: Keyboards, mice, scanners, touchscreens, and their connection types.
Output Devices: Monitors, printers, speakers, projectors.
Display Technologies: LCD, LED, OLED, and resolutions including HD, Full HD, 4K.
Ports For Peripherals: USB, HDMI, DisplayPort, VGA, DVI.

Familiarity with peripherals helps troubleshoot connectivity and functionality issues.

Mobile Devices Hardware

The exam also covers mobile device hardware, including laptops, tablets, and smartphones.

Components: Batteries, keyboards, touchpads, screens, storage types.
Upgrade Options: Replacing RAM or storage in laptops.
Specialized Hardware: Digitizers, webcams, wireless cards.
Power Management: Battery care and charging technologies.

Supporting mobile devices requires an understanding of their unique hardware constraints.

Installing And Configuring Hardware

Practical skills include correctly installing hardware components and configuring systems.

Anti-static Precautions: Preventing electrostatic discharge when handling components.
Proper Tools: Screwdrivers, cable testers, and diagnostic devices.
BIOS Configuration: Setting boot order, enabling virtualization, and managing hardware profiles.
Driver Installation: Ensuring hardware compatibility through correct drivers.

Following correct procedures prevents damage and ensures components function correctly.

Troubleshooting Hardware Issues

Diagnosing hardware problems systematically is essential.

Symptom Identification: Power failures, POST errors, beeps, no display.
Component Testing: Using POST cards, swapping known-good parts, running diagnostics.
Common Issues: Overheating, insufficient power, loose connections, incompatible hardware.
Resolution Techniques: Cleaning dust, reseating components, updating firmware.

A methodical approach reduces downtime and improves repair efficiency.

Understanding Security Fundamentals For The 220-1101 Exam

Security is an essential aspect of modern IT environments, and the 220-1101 exam requires candidates to demonstrate a solid grasp of foundational security concepts. This section covers basic security principles, best practices for securing devices and data, and how to identify and respond to common threats.

Security Principles And Concepts

Understanding the core principles of information security helps build a secure IT infrastructure. These principles include:

Confidentiality: Ensuring information is accessible only to those authorized to view it.
Integrity: Protecting data from unauthorized alteration to maintain accuracy.
Availability: Guaranteeing timely and reliable access to information and resources.
Authentication: Verifying the identity of users or systems.
Authorization: Granting or restricting access rights based on authentication.
Non-repudiation: Ensuring that a party cannot deny the authenticity of their signature or communication.

Grasping these concepts is vital for understanding security controls and policies.

Physical Security Measures

Physical security is the first line of defense against unauthorized access.

Access Control: Use of locks, badges, biometric scanners, and security guards to limit entry.
Environmental Controls: Fire suppression, temperature monitoring, and surge protectors to protect hardware.
Hardware Security: Secure placement of devices and use of cable locks.
Disposal Procedures: Proper destruction of sensitive data and devices to prevent data recovery.

Implementing physical security helps reduce risk of theft, damage, and data breaches.

Common Threats And Vulnerabilities

Candidates must recognize common threats that can compromise system security.

Malware: Malicious software such as viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, and spyware.
Phishing: Deceptive attempts to obtain sensitive information by masquerading as a trustworthy entity.
Social Engineering: Manipulating individuals into divulging confidential information.
Denial of Service (DoS): Attacks designed to overwhelm systems and disrupt availability.
Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Intercepting communications between parties without their knowledge.

Understanding these threats enables proactive defense and incident response.

Securing Devices And Data

Securing devices and data protects organizational assets and user information.

Strong Passwords: Use of complex passwords and passphrases with a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols.
Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Adding additional verification layers such as biometrics or token codes.
Encryption: Encoding data in transit and at rest to prevent unauthorized reading.
Endpoint Protection: Installing antivirus, anti-malware, and firewalls on devices.
Patch Management: Regularly updating software and firmware to fix security vulnerabilities.

Applying these measures helps maintain a robust security posture.

Network Security Fundamentals

Network security protects data as it travels between devices.

Firewalls: Hardware or software devices that filter traffic based on security rules.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Secure tunnels that encrypt data between remote users and networks.
Segmentation: Dividing networks into segments or VLANs to limit access and contain breaches.
Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS): Tools that monitor and block suspicious activities.

Awareness of network security tools is crucial for protecting communications.

Wireless Security

Wireless networks are especially vulnerable to attacks.

Wi-Fi Encryption: Use of WPA2 or WPA3 protocols to secure wireless communications.
SSID Management: Disabling SSID broadcast or using hidden SSIDs to deter unauthorized access.
MAC Address Filtering: Restricting device connections based on physical hardware addresses.
Rogue Access Point Detection: Identifying unauthorized wireless devices on a network.

Securing wireless networks ensures safe and reliable connectivity.

Security Policies And Procedures

Establishing and enforcing security policies is a key administrative control.

Acceptable Use Policy (AUP): Defines permissible use of organizational resources.
Password Policy: Sets requirements for password complexity and rotation.
Incident Response Plan: Outlines steps to respond to and recover from security incidents.
Backup Policy: Regularly backing up critical data to prevent loss.

Policies create a structured framework for maintaining security standards.

User Education And Awareness

Users are often the weakest link in security. Training helps mitigate risks.

Phishing Awareness: Teaching users to identify suspicious emails and links.
Safe Browsing Practices: Encouraging cautious interaction with websites.
Reporting Procedures: Ensuring users know how to report potential security incidents.

Educated users can significantly reduce vulnerability to attacks.

Incident Response And Recovery

Responding promptly and effectively to security incidents minimizes damage.

Identification: Detecting the occurrence of an incident.
Containment: Isolating affected systems to prevent spread.
Eradication: Removing the cause of the incident.
Recovery: Restoring systems and data to normal operation.
Lessons Learned: Analyzing the incident to improve future security.

A formal response process is vital for maintaining resilience.

Final Thoughts:

The foundational knowledge of hardware and security concepts covered in the 220-1101 exam is critical for any aspiring IT professional. Understanding the intricacies of computer components, from processors and memory to storage devices and power supplies, builds the groundwork necessary for assembling, maintaining, and troubleshooting modern systems. Equally important is a solid grasp of security principles, including confidentiality, integrity, availability, and the practical measures needed to protect devices and data from a constantly evolving threat landscape.

Hardware knowledge enables candidates to confidently identify and resolve issues related to physical components, ensuring efficient and reliable system operation. From proper installation techniques to recognizing common hardware failures, this skill set forms the backbone of IT infrastructure management. On the other hand, security knowledge equips candidates to anticipate, identify, and mitigate risks posed by malware, phishing attacks, social engineering, and network vulnerabilities. This dual focus on hardware and security reflects the real-world demands faced by IT professionals in protecting both physical assets and sensitive information.

In addition, understanding network and wireless security practices, user education, and incident response processes prepares candidates for proactive defense and effective recovery from incidents. The ability to implement security policies and foster awareness among users greatly enhances an organization’s security posture. Furthermore, candidates learn how to use modern tools like firewalls, VPNs, encryption, and authentication methods to build layered protection around critical resources.

In summary, the 220-1101 exam covers essential knowledge that lays the foundation for successful careers in IT support and administration. Candidates who master both hardware and security concepts are well-positioned to tackle practical challenges, safeguard organizational assets, and adapt to rapidly changing technology environments. This comprehensive understanding ensures that they not only pass the exam but also become competent professionals capable of contributing significantly to their organizations’ technology and security goals.